Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) and extended reality (XR) technologies, including virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), are increasingly being integrated into second language acquisition (SLA). Although individual studies have reported promising outcomes, the magnitude and consistency of their effects on language learning remain uncertain. This meta-analysis synthesized evidence from peer-reviewed experimental and quasi-experimental studies to estimate the effectiveness of AI- and XR-enhanced multisensory interventions on linguistic, cognitive, and affective outcomes in language education. Following PRISMA guidelines, 21 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025 were systematically reviewed. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled Hedges’ g effect sizes, with subgroup analyses conducted by outcome domain, technology type, and learner age group. Risk of bias and publication bias were also assessed. The overall meta-analysis indicated a moderate positive effect of AI- and XR-enhanced interventions on second language learning outcomes (Hedges’ g = 0.61, 95% CI [0.44, 0.78], p < .001). Domain-specific analyses suggested the strongest effects for linguistic outcomes (g = 0.68), followed by affective outcomes (g = 0.55) and cognitive outcomes (g = 0.42). Effects were generally positive across learner groups, with somewhat larger estimates for K–12 learners than for adult learners. Publication bias analyses suggested that the pooled effect may be slightly overestimated; however, trim-and-fill adjustments indicated that the overall conclusions remained substantively unchanged (adjusted g ≈ 0.54). These findings suggest that AI- and XR-enhanced multisensory interventions may support both linguistic and affective dimensions of SLA, particularly motivation, engagement, and confidence. However, the results should be interpreted cautiously given methodological heterogeneity, variable definitions of artificial intelligence, and the limited number of studies in some subgroups. Further large-scale and longitudinal research is needed to clarify the conditions under which these technologies are most effective and to support their responsible and equitable implementation in language education.

Keywords

Affective Outcomes, Artificial Intelligence, Augmented Reality, Cognitive Outcomes, Second Language Acquisition, Virtual Reality,

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